Formation:

• Relative pronouns as objects: that, which, who, whom, Ø (nothing)

Relative Pronouns as Objects:

• that: "The book that I read was good." (things)
• which: "The book which I read was good." (things, formal)
• who: "The person who I met was nice." (people, informal)
• whom: "The person whom I met was nice." (people, formal)

Omitting Relative Pronoun:

• Can often omit in object position
• "The book that I read" → "The book I read" ✓
• "The person who I saw" → "The person I saw" ✓

Examples:

• "The report that I wrote was successful."
• "The client who/that/whom we met signed the contract."
• "The presentation which/that we watched was impressive."

Business Context:

• "The proposal that you submitted was approved."
• "The employees who we hired are performing well."
• "The software which we purchased has bugs."

Formation:

• Relative pronouns as subjects: who, that, which
• CANNOT omit relative pronoun in subject position

Relative Pronouns as Subjects:

• who: "The person who called me left a message." (people)
• that: "The person that called me left a message." (people/things)
• which: "The document which contains the info is on the desk." (things)

CRITICAL RULE: Cannot omit subject relative pronoun

• Correct: "The man who called is here."
• Incorrect: "The man called is here." ✗ (changes meaning)

Examples:

• "The manager who approved the project is on vacation."
• "The team that won the award received a bonus."
• "The report which contains the data is on my desk."

Subject vs. Object Comparison:

Defining vs. Non-Defining:

Defining (Essential):

• No commas
• Identifies which one
• "The employees who work hard get promoted." (Only hard-working employees)

Non-Defining (Extra Info):

• Commas required
• Adds information
• "My employees, who all work hard, get promoted." (All work hard)

Which vs. That:

• Defining: that or which
• Non-defining: only which (no that)
• "The car that I bought is red." (defining)
• "My car, which is red, needs repair." (non-defining)

Reduced Relative Clauses:

• Active: "The man standing there" (= The man who is standing there)
• Passive: "The documents mentioned in the report" (= The documents which were mentioned...)

Prepositions in Relative Clauses:
Formal: Preposition + whom/which

• "The company for which I work"
• "The person to whom I spoke"

Informal: Preposition at end + who/which/that

• "The company which I work for"
• "The person who I spoke to"

Whose, Where, When:

• Whose (possession): "The client whose account was closed"
• Where (place): "The office where I work"
• When (time): "The time when we met"

Examples:

• "The CEO, whose leadership transformed the company, retired yesterday."
• "The hotel where we stayed was excellent."
• "The year when we launched was memorable."

So As To (Purpose - Simple Result):

• "I arrived early so as to be prepared."
• "We reorganized so as to improve efficiency."
• Similar to "in order to"

Now That (Reason - Changed Circumstance):

• "Now that the merger is complete, we can expand."
• "Now that you're here, let's begin."
• Shows that something has changed and is now true

As Long As (Condition):

• "As long as you meet the deadline, we're happy."
• "We'll proceed as long as funding is available."
• Similar to "on condition that"

Comparison:

Addition (Adding Information):

• And: Basic addition
• Also: "She is smart. She is also hardworking."
• Furthermore: Formal, adds emphasis
• Moreover: Very formal, strong addition
• In addition: "In addition, we need..."
• Besides: Adds another point

Contrast (Opposing Ideas):

• But: Basic contrast
• However: More formal than but, starts new sentence
• Nevertheless: Very formal, despite that
• Nonetheless: Despite what was said
• On the other hand: Alternative view
• In contrast: Direct opposition
• Conversely: Reverse relationship

Cause and Effect:

• Because, since, as (reasons)
• Therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, so (effects)

Purpose:

• In order to, so that, for

Condition:

• If, unless, provided that, as long as

Cause Connectors (Because, Since, As):

Because:

• Direct cause
• "We cancelled because of weather."
• Strongest, most common

Since:

• Cause with emphasis on known fact
• "Since you're here, let's talk."
• Often used when reason is obvious

As:

• Cause, formal
• "As it was late, we left."
• Less common than because/since

Effect Connectors (Therefore, Consequently, As a Result, Thus, So):

Therefore:

• Formal, logical conclusion
• "Sales dropped; therefore, profits decreased."

Consequently:

• Formal, follows as consequence
• "He lied; consequently, he was fired."

As a Result:

• Shows direct result
• "We worked hard; as a result, we succeeded."

Thus:

• Very formal, means "in this way"
• "The plan failed; thus, we must revise."

So:

• Informal, common in speech
• "It rained, so we stayed inside."

Prepositions for Cause/Effect:

• Because of + noun: "Because of rain..."
• Due to + noun: "Due to circumstances..."
• Owing to + noun: "Owing to delays..."
• Thanks to + noun (positive): "Thanks to help..."

Purpose Connectors (In Order To, So That):

In Order To:

• Formal purpose
• "We trained in order to improve."
• Can be shortened to "to"
• "We trained to improve."

So That:

• Purpose with clause
• "We trained so that we could improve."
• Often used with can/could/would

For:

• Purpose with noun
• "This tool is for cutting."

Condition Connectors (If, Unless, Provided That, As Long As):

If:

• Basic condition
• "If it rains, we'll cancel."

Unless:

• "If not" condition
• "Unless it rains, we'll go."
• "Unless you study, you'll fail." (= If you don't study...)

Provided That:

• Formal condition
• "Provided that you pay, we'll deliver."
• "We'll go, provided that it's sunny."

As Long As:

• Similar to provided that
• "As long as you try, you'll improve."
• "We'll help as long as you need."

Even If:

• Condition regardless
• "Even if it rains, we'll go."

Whether or Not:

• Condition in either case
• "Whether you like it or not, we must decide."

Only If:

• Strong condition
• "We'll go only if you drive."

Comparison Table: